The Telephone And Its Corporation Essays - Bell System,

The Telephone And Its Corporation The Telephone And Its Corporation The phone is easily one of man's most important, useful and taken for granted inventions. The telephone has outgrown the ridicule with which it first received, now in most places taken for granted, it is a part of many people's daily lives. It marvelously extended the ways man converses that it is now an indispensable help to whoever would live the convenient life. All disadvantage of being deaf and mute to any persons, which was universal before the advent of the telephone, has now happily been overcome. Before I tell of the history of how the telephone was constructed and put in to place I will tell of the past of communications. Ever since the ability of language and written language the most popular form of communication was done through a letter. Others were as documented in 1200 BC in Homer's Illiad were signal fires. Carrier pigeons were used in the Olympic games to send messages from 700 BC to 300 AD. In 1791 the Chappe brothers created the Semaphore system; they were two teens in France who wanted to be able to contact each other from their different school campuses. This system consisted of a pole with movable arms, which the positions took the place of letters of the alphabet. Two years later this idea had caught on and was being used in France, Italy, Russia, and Germany. Two semaphore systems were built in the U.S. in Boston and on Martha's Vineyard; soon Congress was asked to fund a project for a semaphore system running from New York City to New Orleans. Samuel Morse told Congress that not to fund the project because he was developing the electric telegraph. Soon Samuel Morse developed his electric telegraph he demonstrated it in 1844 it caught on and by 1851 51 telegraph companies were in operation. And it continued to grow to 2250 telegraph offices nationwide. In 1876 Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone. Alexander Graham Bell was born on March 3, 1847 in Edinburgh. He grew up deeply involved in the study of speech due to his father and grandfathers work. He was also a talented musician able to play by ear from a very early age, and, had he not been more interested in what his father was doing to help people speak, he might have ended up as a professional musician. He and his two brothers built a model human skull and filled it with a good enough reproduction of the human vocal apparatus, which worked with a bellows, so it would be able to say, "Ma-ma." Alexander became a Professor and taught visible speech he was greatly appreciated for this. Soon he went to work for Thomas Sanders a successful leather merchant from Salem who had a five-year old deaf son. Sanders also became a friend and admirer of Bell and his work. At his time at the Sanders house he was able to do his experiments in the basement until it became a tad bothersome to Sanders and told him to find a new place to experiment. So Alexander moved his lab to Charles Williams' electrical shop in Boston and employed Thomas Watson together they worked for weeks to figure out this enigma. Finally after tightly tying a copper string and plucking it caused a distinct sound on both ends. He applied for a patent on February 14, 1876 3 hours before Elisha Gray filed a patent for a similar device. March 7, 1876 the patent was issued three days later Alexander spoke the famous words after spilling acid on his pants "Mr. Watson come here I want you!" In order to distribute this new technology to the world and humanity a corporation needed to be created. The business venture to start this new corporation began before the invention with an agreement between Thomas Sanders, Gardiner G. Hubbard, and Bell dated February 27, 1875. Formed as a basis for financing Bell's experiments, the agreement came to be called the Bell Patent Association. The only tangible assets of this association were an early Bell patent, "Improvements in Transmitters and Receivers for Electric Telegraph," his basic telephone patent, No. 174,465, an "Improvement in Telegraphy" (March 7, 1876), and two additional patents that followed. Publicity was needed Hubbard urged Bell to demonstrate his new instrument as well as the further improvements Thomas Watson had produced at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition that summer. It was hot and muggy in Philadelphia and not many people were attracted the complex scientific experiment setup. But Bell had seen an old

Women and Pornography theory essays

Women and Pornography theory essays Constitutionally protected speech that is Clearly sexual abuse is discriminating and unconstitutional, therefore, must be restricted speech. Catherine A. MacKinnon, in her book Only Words gives persuading evidence that pornography subordinates women as a group through sexual abuse. She says Protecting pornography means protecting sexual abuse as speech, at the same time that both pornography and its protection have deprived women of speech, especially speech against pornography (MacKinnon, 9). MacKinnon argues this bye explaining defamation and discrimination, racial and sexual harassment, and equality and Women are sexually abused for the making of pornography. Torture, rape, hot wax dripping over nipples, and murdering women are the tools to produce a product of evil. Literature is the description of these crimes against humanity (emphasized) and cameras are On the assumption that words have only a referential relation to reality, pornography is defended as only words-even when it is pictures women had to directly used to make, even when the means of writing are womens bodies, even when a women is destroyed in order to say it or show it or because it was said or shown. However, assuming words are only a partial relation to reality would mean we would have to reconsider what reality is. Our wedding vows such as I do would be meaningless and a jury could never return a verdict that is only partial to reality. These words are treated as the institutions and practices they constitute, rather than as expressions of the idea they embody (Mackinnon, 13) Therefore, if these words of pornography are only words, dont they institutionalize rape? Since pornography is rape on women. Pornography is protected by the First Amendment as free speech, but why? Becaus ...

Evaluation of Science and Technology Policies Essay

Evaluation of Science and Technology Policies - Essay Example A number of measures, called performance indicators are usually invented in order to simplify the evaluation process and make it more easily readable by non-expert groups (e.g. investors). "Simply put, performance indicators are measures that describe how well a programme is achieving its objectives Indicators are usually quantitative measures but may also be qualitative observations. They define how performance will be measured along a scale or dimension" (USAID Center for Development Information and Evaluation, 1996). The question that is raised in this essay can be formulated as follows: is it possible to rely on performance indicators without evaluation itself, and what will be the consequences To answer that question, the essay clarifies at first a concept of evaluation, its development in research policy, its relations with performance indicators (PI), limitations of PI, and finally demonstrates with the help of two examples that the substitution of evaluation with merely PI wi ll lead to the decline of investor-funded science itself. Let us at first get acquainted with the concept of evaluation answering a simple question: what is the evaluation and why do we need it in research Generally the evaluation can be defined as follows: Evaluation is the systematic acquisition and assessment of information to provide useful feedback about some object" (Trochim, 2002). So, in other words, evaluation provides the interested parties with the feedback, which will be useful, i.e. will help in the decision-making process. This leads us to the answer on the second part of the expressed question: evaluation is needed in research to make the funding policy more effective. If the evaluation processes provide the correct feedback about the usefulness of candidate scientific projects then the most 'useful' projects will receive funding, which will lead to the development of 'useful' science. The word 'useful' is placed in quotation marks advisedly, as it is also an important question: what science can be called useful However, thi s question leaves out of the scope of this essay. Initially, evaluation can be divided into two types: formative and summative. Whereas formative evaluation examine the delivery of the project or technology, the quality of its implementation, and the assessment of the organizational context, personnel, procedures, inputs, and so on, the summative evaluation analyses the effects of the project, determining its overall impact (Trochim, 2002). Each of these types benefits from the use of performance indicators, because to determine both the implementation and the impact a number o measures have to be devised. Development of evaluation It is evident that the evaluation process itself constantly endures changes. To put it differently, the accent of evaluation changes in accordance with the current research evaluation policy. "In most European countries an "evaluation culture" in science, technology and innovation policies has evolved since the 1980s, including the ex post evaluation of research programmes and other policy initiatives, the evaluation of R&D centres and universities, and the evaluation of R&D funding agencies. (Kuhlmann, 2000)" Rip characterises the changes of R&D evaluation through the use of triangular metric with accountability, strategic change,